introduction to linguistics

INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTICS

A Linguistics Primer For Malaysians

LANGUAGE, COMMUNICATE, AND LINGUISTICS

Menurut Loga Mahesan Baskaran :

            What is language ? How would you define language ? language can be seen as sound organized into units of form and function with meaning, contextualized in reality . The key words here are sound,form,function,meaning and reality,coupled with the words ” organized” and “contextualized “. Taking each word separately we can now look into the more technical perspective that places language on a plane which is scientific and objective, However, before dealing with the perspective, we must consider how we arrive at this technical aspect of language .

            Language can also be considered as an abstraction resultant from the linguistics behaviour of its users. To study it or describe this abstraction we need a science of language- a systematic study of  language. This is what is known as linguistics – that scientific, systematic objective study of  language. To transfer this abstraction intro concrete terms, we have to have the necessary medium- firstly speech, since most individuals learn to speak language first before they write, and then writing. Considering speech and writing separately, we know that speech is the association of sound with meaning, whilst writing is the association of symbols with meaning. Thus combining both, we have the association of sound, symbol and meaning. This association of sound, symbol and meaning  can be represented graphically as’ in Figure 1.1 :

Figure 1.1 : The Relationship of  Language and Medium

LANGUAGE

( Abstraction )

 

Medium

( Concrete realization )

 

                             Speech                                                        Writing

                     ( sound and meaning )                                    ( symbol and meaning )

            Language can also be seen as a system of signals by which we communicate. The term “ communicate “ here is what we have to consider carefully.

Communication

Communication is a wide – ranging term, but the context which we are referring to is the context of human communication . Human communication has many variables. The basic difference that can be traced is represented diagrammatically in Figure 1.2 :

Figure 1.2 : The Variables of Communication

COMMUNICATION

                      

                        Non – vocal

                                                                                                                        Vocal

Visual                                                  Physical ( Kinetic )                            

                      Tactile     Olfactory                                                          Non – speech     Speech

                                                                                                                       

                                   Physiological             Emotion                   Voice quality  Paralinguistics

                                   Reflexes                   markers                      differences           effects

      The first subdivision of communication is between non – vocal and vocal communications, which can be further subdivided into non-speech and speech . The diagram above represents this aspects of the variables of communication.

     Considering non-vocal communication, the variables involved are simple and basic. For example, if someone stares at you with wide open eyes just as you enter a room, you will at once wonder whether you have done something wrong or are wearing something odd, or perhaps just look out of context in that room. There need be no exchange of words at all to communicate this kind of a message. Just a visual mode of communication via the eyes is enough to send the message across to the recipient. Likewise, a little wink of the eye when say, a father is with his young son, may-mean, “Hey, we’re a team aren’t we ? “ or “ You’re my boy! “ or “ that ‘s my favourite son !”.

     Similarly,other aspects of non – vocal communication are tactile (touch of the hand ) , olfactory (twitching of the nose ), and kinetic or physical (actual body-movement –what is known also as body language ). These are all modes of communication which send messages across to the recipient with no voice involved . for examples , when someone is grieving, say at the passing-away of someone close, we would go up to her/him to just place our hands on her/his shoulders, perhaps, or just take her / his hands in ours and not say anything at all – and yet this gesture could speak a thousand word of comfrot, meaning, “ I’m with you and will always be here for you. “ Likewise, when we shake hands with another person or salute someone, there is a message conveyed, meaning, “ How are you –hope you’re fine “ or “ Greetings and good-day to you “- all of which can be conveyed without any voice or speech and only with the tactile mode.

     Another mode of non – vocal communication is the olfactory mode where the twiching of the nose indicates response, say, to a foul smell or the emitting of some fragrance of some good – satay , or some barbecue some where in the vicinity.

Linguistics

     In the definition of language as “ sound “ organized into units of “ form “ and “ function “ with “ meaning “, contextualized in “ reality “, the key words pointed out are “ sound “, “form “, “ function “ ,” meaning “, and “ reality “ . Taking these key words as “ cue “ words , let us look at them individually and see how they are actually the building- blocks to a solid building, called linguistics- the science of language . To do this we will trace a parallel in the individual human being from the time of birth to the stage of complete mastery of the language – that is , the complete language acquisition process in its various stages.

     This process and its various stages can be diagrammatically represented thus, with the centre-point representing the individual at birth, moving outwards in concentric circless, as he goes through the stages of the language acquisition process.

There is 6 kind type of linguistics :

1.      Sound

The new-born infant being totally normal produces sounds such as / wa,aa/ aeetc.which seems meaningless to those who speak a fully developed language . to this individual ( infant ) however, these “ meaningless” sounds are means of communication with those around him. When he/she is hungry, wet, uncomfortable, cold or thirsty, the only means of conveying yhis message ( that, “ I’m hungry “ or “ I’m wet, i need to change my diapres “) is by crying. Thus, this production , of “ meaningless” sounds( which do not have vocabulary meaning in any language) is the first stage of communication with the world. It also signifies the first stage of language acquisition albeit through sounds only with no conscious effort on anybody’s part to each this infant to do so .

2.      Phonetics

The technical perspective that we can parallel this stage to be the field of phonetics which is the study of the productions, transmission and reception of sound. The ability to produce sounds cierly and with no defect is due to the vocal apparatus that is physiologically wholesome and with no defects. Thus phonetics is the field of linguistics science which is concerned with how sounds are produced , what kinds of sounds are produced and how these sounds are received and represented via symbols in language in general. These are various types of phonetics dealing with each of these types which will be dealt with in the chapter on Phonetics.

The next stage in the language acquisition process is when the infant combines some sounds to produce syllables or parts of syllables which have some meaningful intent. For example /ma/ is almost a universal syllable which firts appears in such a situation. The infant produces the combination of/m/a/ sounds to produce “ma”/ ma / which is, in most languages, the first syllable of the word “Mama” or “Mummy” or “Amma” meaning “mother”. Likewise,there is progression to other syilables such as “da”/ da/ (referring to “father”) or “pa”/pa. Other such examples are “gi”/gi/ for “doggy” or “kim” /kim/for “ice cream “ .

3.      Phonolgy

This stage of language acquisition can be technically paralled to the field of phonolgy which is the study of speech sounds-called phonemes-in their combinations which are specific to a language . Thus it deals with the various combinations which can go to make meaningful sounds specific to and characteristics of a language. For examples the cosonant cluster “tr” is common in English but not part of the phonolgy of Malay . similiarly, the “h” sound occurs in initial, medial as well as final positions in Malay but not in final position in English. Thus phonolgy deals with the combinations and positions of sounds specific to a language .

The next stage of acquisition as teh months roll on and the infant is exposed to more language around him /her, is when he can give some from to this combinations of sounds . (S) He can say “Mama “ now (and not just “ma), just as he/she can say “doggy”  (and not just “gi “). So the syllable that was used before now becomes a word. This syllable could be just one syllable which can also stand as a word (such as “ I”, “me” and “you” or a combination of syllables to make a simple word . this minimal grammatical unit-a morpheme –therefore can stand as a word on its own or combines with another morpheme to form a word such as “mama”.

1.      Morphology

The technical study of this aspect of language is associated with such morphemes, which have their respective grammatical functions. The field is known as morphology, which differentiates the various kinds of morphemes based on their finer grammatical functions. These will be dealt with in greater detail in the relevant chapter later on.

The progression from the simple word stage to a combination of words takes place slowly but surely, as the infant learns how to be able to say “Mama go” or “Doggy run “ or “Baby want” “ bina” (Ribena). This satge is reflective of the arrangement of words according to the rules of word- ordering in that language. However, it is not a consciously taugh ordering that occurs, but a normal acquisition process-governed by what is genetically disposed in the brain that is determined by the “ Language Acquisition Device ‘ (LAD). The ordering of words specific to a language is a manifestation of this LAD .

2.      Syntax

The linguistics field, associated with this field is known as “ syntax”-concerned with the arrangement and ordering of words according to the rules of that language . From words, there is the progression to phrases, clauses and sentences. There are many aspects to the syntax of any language, all of which will be dealt with in the chapter on Syntax.

Almost after this acquisition of morphology and syntax, the individual ( who is now older and exposed to even more language) gradually gets to increase his vocabulary. More words come within his range-it is no more just “ milk” and “bina”, but “orange” “ice-cream” and items that are within his immediate need and use. Then again, it is no more just “ sit, stand” ot “talk, walk” but “run, cry, sing and dance “ and many more others.

3.      Lexicology

This stage of vocabulary extension where the individual gets to widen his meaning range and repertoire is known as lexicology, the study of vocabulary items of a language. Such items are known as “lexemes” ; or the lexis of a language. In association with this area is another word “ lexicographer”, one who is involved in dictionary entries and dictionary-making.

The individual gets to expand his vocabulary ( lexical range ) with more language exposure as he / she grows older. The lexical range that he or she soon encounters enables him or her to see that there is not just one lexical item. For example “table” does not refer to a “ piece of furniture” alone. The meaning could be extended to mean “ the flattened part of a mountain-top ”or “ the multiplication list” (times- table) that he has to learn in school, as well as the verb-phrase, “ to table “ which means “ to put forward “ or “ put down/ “list down”.

4.      Semantics

This aspect of vocabulary extension where meaning goes further than just the first initial source referent and event touches aspects of metaphors and idioms is covered in the study of linguistics called “semantics” . Semantics is a wide field with its many subdivisions, which will be dealt with in the relevant chapter later on in this book.

Up to this stage, the individual is said to be acquiring the basics of the language, ( the bricks of the language ) what is also known generically as the structure of the language. Thus the linguistics fields covered here are the pure linguistic sciences also known as descriptive linguistics, covering phonetics and phonolgy ( the sound system) , morphology and syntax ( form and function i.e. the grammar of language), and lexis and semantics ( the meaning system ). Thus we can trace the elements of sound, form and function as well as meaning in the acquisition of language.

Upon the attainment of these pure linguistics levels, the individual can be said to be a full-fledged speaker of the language. His/her repertoire is wholesome enough for him/her to be a representative speaker of the language, the native language or mother-tongue. His/her use of language is continuously enriched by additions to his/her vocabulary repertoire as well as improvement to his/her pronounciation and grammar.

    

Conclusion

 Having covered the core fields of basic linguistics, from phonetics and phonolgy, morpholgy, and syntax,lexis, and semantics, and paragmatics, through to the applied linguistics fields from sociolinguistics,psycholinguistics, historical, the book should satiate the newcomer to this interesting field that involves language that very tool of human communication. For further and detailed reading, the bibliography of references provides ample authors’ works on almost every chapter. The student of linguistics or its related disciplines would find it only imperative that this linguistics primer leads on to the secondary readings that would further quench his/her thirst for in depth knowladge in this science.