semantics

Simple Definition of semantics

“The word semantics is derived from the Greek semaino, meaning, to signify or mean. Semantics is part of the larger study of signs, semiotics. It is the part that deals with words as signs (symbols) and language as a system of signs (words as symbols)." (Hipkiss, 1995:ix)

Menurut Hipkiss kata semantik diambil dari Yunani Semaino, yang bermakna Menandai atau memaknai. Semantik adalah bagian dari bidang studi tentang makna yang lebih luas yaitu semiotics. Semantik juga bagian yang membahas tentang simbol, tanda dan bahasa sebagai satu kesatuan sistem simbol.

Sementara itu, Saeed (2003:3) secara ringkas memaknai semantik sebagai berikut:

“Semantics is the study of meaning communicated through language.”

Lebih pendek lagi, Hurford dan Heasley (1983:1) mendefinisikan semantik dengan sangat sederhana, mereka mengatakan:

"Semantics is the study of meaning in Language."

Selain itu, Palmer (1976:1) memaknai semantik sebagai salah satu bagian dari cabang ilmu linguistics. Ia menjelaskan bahwa:

 "Semantics is the technical term used to refer to the study of meaning, and since meaning is a part of language, semantics is a part of linguistics."

Menurut Palmer, semantik adalah istilah yang digunakan yang mengacu pada ilmu bidang makna, dan karena makna adalah bagian dari bahasa, maka semantik adalah bagian dari cabang ilmu linguistik.

 

• Examples of semantics in a sentence

• More than semantics is at stake. In the case of obesity, the debate has heightened in the wake of major diet-pill recalls last year. Many new diet nostrums are in various stages of testing, and the FDA's bar for approving new drugs is lower for disease treatments than for other problems, such as baldness or skin wrinkles. —Laura Johannes et al., Wall Street Journal, 9 Feb. 1998
• Over the years Wierzbicka has gained a distinct reputation for playing hardball with others in the linguistics community. Though her rhetoric can be rather scathing at times, there is no question that her studies in semantics are a force to be reckoned with. —Joseph Hilferty, Word, April 1997
  References 
  http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/semantics
  Referensi:
  
  Saeed, John I. 2003. Semantics. 2nd Edition. Blackwell Publishing, Ltd
  
  
  Hipkiss, Robert. A. 1995. Semantics: Defining The Discipline. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
  
  
  Hurford, James R. and Heasley, Brendan. 1983. Semantics: A Coursebook. Cambridge University Press.
  
  
  Palmer, F.R. 1976. Semantics. 2nd Edition. Cambridge University Press.
  
  Sumber ENGLISHINDO.COM Referensi Belajar Bahasa Inggris Online: http://www.englishindo.com/2011/05/semantics-definisi-dari-para-ahli.html#ixzz4AG8lpDGP
  
  

SYNTAX

I WILL EXPLANATION ABOUT SYNTAX

Syntax

Syntax is the grammar, structure, or order of the elements in a language statement. (Semantics is the meaning of these elements.) Syntax applies to computer languages as well as to natural languages. Usually, we think of syntax as "word order." However, syntax is also achieved in some languages such as Latin by inflectional case endings. In computer languages, syntax can be extremely rigid as in the case of most assembler languages or less rigid in languages that make use of "keyword" parameters that can be stated in any order.

C.W. Morris in his Foundations of the Theory of Signs (1938) organizes semiotics, the study of signs, into three areas: syntax (the study of the interrelation of the signs); semantics (the study of the relation between the signs and the objects to which they apply); and pragmatics (the relationship between the sign system and the user). 

Syntax is also known as the study of the rules that must be followed to create well-formed phrases, clauses and sentences.

Correct and Incorrect Syntax 

• Incorrect - While watching a movie, people who text on their phone are very annoying.
• Correct - People who text on their phone while watching a movie are very annoying.

The phrase "while watching a movie" modifies the noun phrase "People who text on their phone" by explaining when they text. The modifier should follow the noun phrase of the sentence.

• Incorrect - Happy about her upcoming promotion, the trip home was full of singing.
• Correct - Happy about her upcoming promotion, Sammie sang all the way home.

The phrase "Sammie sang all the way home" is more descriptive than "the trip home was full of singing.

• Incorrect - Come for a visit I have plenty of food.
• Correct - Come for a visit! I have plenty of food.

Breaking the words into two sentences allows for an exclamation mark which increases the impact of "Come for a visit!"

• Incorrect - Before we go to the movies.
• Correct - I need to rest before we go to the movies.

"Before we go to the movies" is a sentence fragment. Adding "I need to rest" makes the words a complete sentence.

• Incorrect - I gave him money I stole from the store.
• Correct - I gave him the money I stole from the store.

Adding the word "the" further explains which money was given.

• Incorrect - To the movies we are going.
• Correct - We are going to the movies.

Reversing the order of the words makes this a more direct sentence.

• Incorrect - You can’t go the movies. Or buy popcorn without any money.
• Correct - You can’t go the movies or buy popcorn without any money.

Expressed as two sentences, it says you cannot go to the movies. It doesn't say why. It also leaves a sentence fragment of "Or buy popcorn without any money. By combining the two sentences it makes it clear that the money is needed for both the movies AND the popcorn.

• Incorrect - Did you ever speak to him? Yes, I was speaking to him yesterday.
• Correct - Did you ever speak to him? Yes, I spoke to him yesterday.

Verb tense was changed.

• Incorrect - Having learned Italian in a few months, the vacation to Italy was a success.
• Correct - Having learned Italian in a few months, John was successful during his vacation to Italy.

By adding "John was successful during his" it becomes clear that John was the success, not the vacation.

• Incorrect - Her mother made her to call and thank him for the present.
• Correct - Her mother made her call and thank him for the present.

The "to" is not necessary.

• Incorrect - If I took the bus, I will get there in 20 minutes.
• Correct - If I took the bus, I would get there in 20 minutes.

Verb tense was changed.

• Incorrect - We are not allowed smoking in the restaurant.
• Correct - We are not allowed to smoke in the restaurant.

Verb tense was changed.

• Incorrect - I’m getting the car right now. I can be there in no time.
• Correct - I’m getting the car right now. I should be there in no time.

"Can" means I am able. "Should" is projecting that I am able.

• Incorrect - Gary lives on the Elm Street.
• Correct - Gary lives on Elm Street.

The "the" is not necessary.

• Incorrect - This house is dusty filthy and stinky.
• Correct - This house is dusty, filthy and stinky.

A comma is necessary in a list of adjectives in order to set them apart from each other.

• Incorrect - She is not interested to buy jewelry.
• Correct - She is not interested in buying jewelry.

Verb tense was changed.

• Incorrect - Looking over Charlie’s exam, several mistakes became evident immediately. 
• Correct- Looking over Charlie’s exam, the teacher noticed several mistakes.

The correction adds a subject to the sentence.

• Incorrect - Have you went to the library lately?
• Correct - Have you been to the library lately?

The verb was corrected.

• Incorrect - We had lived at this address for ten years.
• Correct - We have been living at this address for ten years.

Verb tense was changed.

• Incorrect - The musical piece the choir sung was lovely.
• Correct - The musical piece the choir sang was lovely.

references

 http://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/syntax

http://examples.yourdictionary.com/syntax-examples.html

 

SEMANTICS

oke , i will explain the SEMANTICS OF LINGUISTICS 
We can learn about "SEMANTICS LINGUISTICS"

 

Semantic 

Definition of Semantic

Semantics is one of the important branches of linguistics that deals with interpretation and meaning of the words, sentence structure and symbols, while determining the reading comprehension of the readers how they understand others and their interpretations. In addition, semantics construct a relation between adjoining words and clarifies the sense of a sentence whether the meanings of words are literal or figurative.

Types of Semantic

There are two types of Semantics:

Connotative Semantic

When a word suggests a set of associations, or it is an imaginative or emotional suggestion connected with the words, while readers can relate to such associations. Simply, it represents figurative meaning. Usually poets use this type of meaning in their poetry.

Denotative Semantic

It suggests the literal, explicit or dictionary meanings of the words without using associated meanings. It also uses symbols in writing that suggest expressions of writers such as an exclamation mark, quotation mark, apostrophe, colon, and quotation mark etc.

Examples of Semantic from Literature

Example 1

Juliet: O, be some other name!
What’s in a name? that which we call a rose
By any other name would smell as sweet;
So Romeo would, were he not Romeo call’d…

The above-mentioned quote, “That which we call a rose…sweet” is, in fact, conveying figurative meaning. However, its surrounding text clarifies the meanings. Juliet is using metaphoric language and arguing with Romeo that his family name is not important for her, because she only wants Romeo.

Example 2

The use of denotation or general meaning can be seen in the very first chapter of James Joyce’s A Portrait of An Artist As a Young Man, when Stephen expresses his feelings for his mother and father saying, “His mother had a nicer smell than his father.” This sentence is conveying a denotative or general meaning that he likes his mother than father. Thus the meaning is understandable and acceptable for all types of readers around the world. Hence, the general acceptability for all people is the major factor for communicating with people successfully.

Example 3

In the famous soliloquy of Hamlet, “To be or not to be” William Shakespeare has used a word that we use quite differently these days. Hamlet says that, “When we have shuffled off this mortal coil.” Here “mortal coil” carries a connotative meaning that suggests life. However, we are using coils in different connection today, which means a series of spirals tightly joined together.

Example 4

We can understand the use of semantic in the beginning of Hedda Gabler, in which Bertha mentions Hedda as, “she’s real lady wants everything just so.” This sentence lays emphasis on the implication that unlike Hedda, other women are not real, neither they have any discipline, nor sequence in the schedules of their life. In another dialogue, she says, “But, Lord! I never dreamed I’d live to see a match between her and master George.” Here, an exclamation mark highlights Bertha’s feelings of curiosity and astonishment. Her word choice, “never dreamed” shows her intensity of surprising emotions about class inequality.

Example 5

We can find use of semantic features in poetry more elaborately, as these features describe the meanings of sentences, phrases and words and make relation between them. These features include personification, simile, imagery, metaphor and allusion, etc. For example in William Blake’s poem Night, he uses all semantic features. The poet employs a simile to compare beauty of moon with flower, “The moon like a flower,” then uses a covert comparison between unlike things as, “And there the lions ruddy eyes, Shall flow with tears of gold”; here tears of gold illustrates the value of tears. Then, we see personification, “The feet of angels bright” and imagery, “The sun descending in the west,/The evening star does shine”, brings a picture in the minds of readers.

Function of Semantic

The purpose of semantic is to propose exact meanings of the words and phrases and remove confusion, which might lead the readers to believe a word has many possible meanings. It makes a relationship between a word and the sentence through their meanings. Besides, semantic enables the readers to explore a sense of the meaning, because if we remove or change the place of a single word from the sentence, it will change the entire meanings, or else the sentence will become anomalous. Hence, the sense relation inside a sentence is very important, as a single word does not carry any sense or meaning.

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Semantics

Simple Definition of semantics

• : the study of the meanings of words and phrases in language
• : the meanings of words and phrases in a particular context

  Full Definition of semantics

  1. 1 :  the study of meanings:a :  the historical and psychological study and the classification of changes in the signification of words or forms viewed as factors in linguistic developmentb (1) :  semiotics (2) :  a branch of semiotic dealing with the relations between signs and what they refer to and including theories of denotation, extension, naming, and truth
  2. 2 :  general semantics
  3. 3a :  the meaning or relationship of meanings of a sign or set of signs; especially :  connotative meaningb :  the language used (as in advertising or political propaganda) to achieve a desired effect on an audience especially through the use of words with novel or dual meaning 
     
     
     Examples of semantics in a sentence 
     • More than semantics is at stake. In the case of obesity, the debate has heightened in the wake of major diet-pill recalls last year. Many new diet nostrums are in various stages of testing, and the FDA's bar for approving new drugs is lower for disease treatments than for other problems, such as baldness or skin wrinkles. —Laura Johannes et al., Wall Street Journal, 9 Feb. 1998 
     • Over the years Wierzbicka has gained a distinct reputation for playing hardball with others in the linguistics community. Though her rhetoric can be rather scathing at times, there is no question that her studies in semantics are a force to be reckoned with. —Joseph Hilferty, Word, April 1997. 
       

   references http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/semantics
  

LEXICOLOGY

 assalamualaikum everybody, now i am going to explain about lexicology...check this out :) 

 Lexicology is a part of linguistics.

•  It studies words, their nature and meaning, words` elements, relation between words, word-groups and the whole lexicon.
• The term first appeared in the 1820s and it composed of two Greek morphemes, “lexis”
• which means “word, phrase” and “logos”
• which denotes “learning a department of knowledge”. Thus, the literal meaning of the term “lexicology” is the science of the word.

Lexicology studies word formation, semasiology, etymological characteristics of words, phraseological units, lexicography and so on.

• The term “vocabulary” is used to denote the system of words and word-groups that the language possesses.
• The term “word” denotes the main lexical unit of a language resulting from the association of a group of sounds with a meaning.
• The term ‘word group” denotes a group of words which exists in the language as a ready-made unit, has the unity of meaning, the unity of syntactical function.

The general study of words and vocabulary, irrespective of the specific features of any particular language, is known as General Lexicology.

Special, Historical, and Descriptive Lexicology

Special Lexicology is the lexicology of a particular language (e.g. English, Russian, etc.), i.e. the study and description of its words and vocabulary. Special lexicology may be historical and descriptive.
The evolution of any vocabulary, as well as of its single elements, forms the object of Historical Lexicology. This branch of linguistics deals with the origin of various words, their change and development, and investigates the linguistic and extra-linguistic forces modifying their structure, meaning and usage.
Descriptive Lexicology deals with the vocabulary of a given language at a given stage of its development. It studies the functions of words and their specific structure as a characteristic inherent in the system.
Lexicology has close ties with other branches of linguistics as they also take into account words in one way or another approaching them from different angles.

Typical word-class suffixes

A suffix can often, but not always, tell us if a word is a noun, verb, adjective or adverb:

nouns	verbs	adjectives	adverbs
station government cruelty	soften identify industrialise	drinkable Japanese useless	carefully easily sadly

A good learner’s dictionary will tell you what class or classes a word belongs to.

Word classes

The other word classes include prepositions, pronouns, determiners, conjunctions and interjections.

Prepositions

Prepositions describe the relationship between words from the major word classes. They include words such as at, in, on, across, behind, for:

We went to the top of the mountain. (to describes the relationship between went and top; of describes the relationship between top and mountain)

Are you ready for lunch yet? (for describes the relationship between ready and lunch)

Pronouns

Pronouns are words which substitute for noun phrases, so that we do not need to say the whole noun phrase or repeat it unnecessarily. Pronouns include words such as you, it, we, mine, ours, theirs, someone, anyone, one, this, those:

That’s Gerry in the photo. He lives in Barcelona.

This jacket’s mine. That must be Linda’s.

Determiners

Determiners come before nouns. They show what type of reference the noun is making. They include words such as a/an, the, my, his, some, this, both:

Have you got a ruler I can borrow?

I need some paper for my printer.

This phone isn’t easy to use.

Conjunctions

Conjunctions show a link between one word, phrase or clause and another word, phrase or clause. They include and, but, when, if, because:

Joe and Dan are brothers.

It was okay, but I wouldn’t recommend it as a restaurant.

We’ll ring you when we get to London.

Interjections

Interjections are mostly exclamation words (e.g. gosh! wow! oh!), which show people’s reactions to events and situations:

A: I’m giving up my job.

B: Oh.

Yippee! I don’t have to go to work tomorrow!

Gosh! What an awful smell!

REFERENCES

http://www.academia.edu/8473548/Objects_aims_and_types_of_Lexicology_word_structure_types_of_morphemes_and_affixes

http://studopedia.su/10_42993_THE-OBJECT-OF-LEXICOLOGY-LINKS-OF-LEXICOLOGY-WITH-OTHER-BRANCHES-OF-LINGUISTICS.html

http://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/word-classes-and-phrase-classes

 

STRUCTURE . LECTURER BY MISS INDAH

INDIRECT OBJECTS AS PASSIVE SUBJECTS

( A) Someone gave Mrs. Lee an award

                                i.o.            d.o.

( B) Mrs. Lee was given an award

( C ) Someone gave an award to Mrs.Lee

                                   d.o             i.o.

( D ) An award was given to Mrs.Lee

I.O = indirect objects ; D.O = direct object

Either an indirect object or a direct object may become the subject of a passive sentence.

(a), (b), (c), and (d) have the same meaning

Notice in  (d) : When the direct object becomes the subject, to is usually kept in front of the inderect object.

Example :

Her mother bought mike     a car

                                 o         o

Ø  Mike was brought a car by her mother

Ø  A car was bought to mike by her mother

Unilak gave miss indah a car

                       o                o

Ø  Miss indah was given a car by unilak

Ø  A car was given to miss indah by unilak

The seller was showing miss indah  a  brochure of car

Ø  Miss indah was being showed a brochure of car by the seller

Ø  A brochure of car was being showed to miss indah by the seller

Ada Active sentences with two objects in Passive

Two objects in an active sentences – two possible passive sentences

When there are two objects in an active sentence, there are two possible active sentences and two possible passive sentences.

• Sentence 1: The professor gave the students the books.

• Sentence 2: The professor gave the books to the students.

There are two objects in each of the following sentences:

• Object 1 = indirect object → the students

• Object 2 = direct object → the books

An indirect object is very often a person, a direct object a thing. When a direct object is followed by an indirect one, we put to in front of the indirect object.

Active sentence 1

Subject	Verb	indirect Object	direct Object
The professor	gave	the students	the books.

Active sentence 2

Subject	Verb	direct Object	indirect Object with to
The professor	gave	the books	to the students.

Each of the objects (books/students) in the active sentences can become subject in the passive sentence.

Passive sentence 1

Subject	Verb	Object	(by-agent)
The students	were given	the books.	(by the professor).

Passive sentence 2

Subject	Verb	Object	(by-agent)
The books	were given	to the students	(by the professor).

Reference : Betty Schrampfer Azar 
                   https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QK9cjDVL6bM
                   http://www.englisch-hilfen.de/en/grammar/passive_two_objects.htm